The Vedantin Contemplative Tradition

Vedanta, meaning “the end or goal of the Vedas,” is a school of Hinduism which focuses on the experiential Realization of the Self.  The Vedanta Tradition, along with each orthodox school of Hinduism, accepts the primary textual authority of the Vedas (referred to as shruti – “What is Heard”) as well as the secondary authority of a wide variety of derivative works (referred to as smriti) which expand upon or attempt to systematize the Vedas.  Well known smriti texts include the Kalpa Sutras, the Puranas, the “epics” Ramayana and Mahabharata, and arguably the most influential work in all of Hinduism – the Bhagavad Gita.  The Vedanta Tradition draws from the Upanishads (embedded within, and often seen as the culmination of, the Vedas), the Bhagavad Gita, and the Vedanta (also sometimes referred to as the “Brahma”) Sutras.  This corpus is together referred to as the Prasthanatrayi.

The Vedas

The Vedas are some of the earliest written documents, perhaps the earliest documents, in human history with dating estimates for the earliest portions ranging from 6,000 to 1,500 BCE.  Of the four Vedas – Rg, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva – the Rg Veda is chief and most essential to Hindu thought.  

Each Veda consists of three (although sometimes further classified into four or five) portions – the Samhita, Brahmanas, and Upanishads.  The Vedic material was written by a wide variety of unknown authors, and although the writings stand side by side in the Canon, each portion likely comes from a chronologically different age – the Samhita coming first, the Brahmanas next, and the Upanishads last. 

Samhita

The first period of Vedic thought is represented by the Samhita or Hymns.  In this section of material we find poetic hymns written to various gods or devas, who often represent natural forces (fire is represented by Agni, storm by Indra, wind by Vayu, night by Ratri, etc.).  The conception of many of these gods resembles the polytheistic Greek pantheon, although there are also portions of this material which lean toward monotheism or monism – seeing various gods as different names or expressions of The One. This progression from polytheism to monotheism/monism may have developed over time, or the differing theologies may have developed side by side.  A lesser portion of this material includes “shamanistic” spells and incantations, which seemingly seek to provide ways to control the gods or lesser spirits.  In general, the Hymns can be thought of as “the works of the poets” within the Vedas and are associated with “naturalistic religion” – the earliest part of Vedic thought.

Brahmanas

In the Brahmanas, the thought world of the Vedas develops into priestly religion.  Concentration is put on religious duties, liturgy, and the correct performance of sacrificial ritual.  This section of the Vedas is more pharisaical or “cold,” and emphasizes correct completion of religious rites over matters of the heart.  The Brahmanas can be thought of as the “works of the priests” within the Vedas and are considered by some to mark a transitional period of thought from naturalistic religion toward the highest or final period of Vedic thought, represented by the Upanishads. 


Upanishads

The Upanishads themselves are often referred to as Veda-anta – the end of the Vedas.  Here the thought world of the Vedas turns to direct spiritual experience and an emphasis on Realizing the Self.  The descriptions of spiritual experience and philosophy set forth here are not systematic, and are in fact diverse enough to result in many competing Indian philosophies, all of which can claim faithfulness to Upanishadic thought.  In the Upanishads, the gods of the Hymns virtually disappear, and are replaced by a focus on Brahman, the ultimate spiritual Source and Ground of existence, and Atman – the Ground of the individual soul.  The Upanishads, especially the ten “principal” or “chief” Upanishads, are a primary source for almost all subsequent Indian philosophy and can be considered the “works of the mystics and philosophers” among the Vedic literature.  

The Bhagavad Gita

Although the Bhagavad Gita is considered smriti and therefore technically assumes secondary authority to the Vedas, it may be the most widely influential work in all of Hinduism.  In the Bhagavad Gita (the “Song of the Lord”), Arjuna, a prince and warrior, meets Krishna, an incarnation of God, and receives counsel on his present situation (the Gita is embedded in the context of the Mahabharata, with Arjuna about to enter battle) and eventually on man’s spiritual journey more broadly.  Throughout the dialogue, Krishna presents Arjuna with various yogas – in this context meaning “methods of achieving Self-Realization or Union with Brahman.”  The Gita, like the Upanishads, is not a systematic text, but traditionally the Gita is seen as teaching Three or possibly Four Yogas: Jnana Yoga – the yoga of intellectual knowledge, Bhakti Yoga – the yoga of devotion, often to a particular god seen as a unique manifestation of Brahman, Karma Yoga – the yoga of selfless service, and Raja Yoga – the yoga of meditation.  As demonstrated in the Gita, Vedanta – and Hinduism more widely – remains a tradition of “many paths,” with aspirants encouraged to choose a way toward God which suits their unique temperament.  The Bhagavad Gita continues to be widely influential in India and abroad, and is considered by some to be an extended Upanishad, as it shares similar viewpoints and vocabulary.  

The Vedanta Sutras and Vedantin Schools

The final portion of the authoritative Vedantin texts are the Vedanta Sutras.  In the Vedanta Sutras, the author (traditionally Vyasa) attempts to systematize the Upanishadic teaching regarding the nature of Brahman as well as addressing topics such as spiritual practice, the soul’s potential journey, and objections from other schools of Indian philosophy.  Although the Vedanta Sutras are an attempt to systematize the Upanishads, the Sutras themselves have been interpreted in various ways by the various schools of Vedanta, and these readings are represented by divergent commentaries from each school.  

The three most well-known schools of Vedanta are Advaita (non-dual) Vedanta associated with Shankara (8th Century), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualistic) Vedanta associated with Ramanuja (11th Century), and Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta associated with Madhva (12th Century).  These schools differ in their interpretations of the Vedanta Sutras, especially regarding the nature of Brahman and its relation to, or possible identification with, both individual selves and matter.  Several other schools of Vedanta exist, all of which recognize the authority of the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Vedanta Sutras.

Common Concepts

Common concepts invoked by the various Vedantin schools include Brahman, Atman, Karma, Samsara, and Moksha. 

Brahman: Brahman, roughly synonymous with Western contemplative conceptions of God, might best be described as the Imminent and Transcendent Ground of Being.  The Upanishads describe Brahman in a variety of ways, sometimes in personal terms and sometimes using impersonal language.  This diversity of language is referenced in the Vedanta Sutras, and the difference is there referred to as Saguna Brahman (Brahman with attributes – roughly “God with personality”) and Nirguna Brahman (Brahman without attributes – roughly ”God as Pure Being”), with Nirguna Brahman typically seen as Pure, Absolute, or the “Highest Form” of Brahman.  Brahman in its highest aspect is Pure Being, beyond all form – sometimes spoken of as Sat-Chit-Ananda (“Being-Consciousness-Bliss”) – and is thought to be capable of being directly experienced or “Realized” through various disciplines including meditative practice.  

Atman: Atman is the Divine Ground or Core of the individual soul – deeper than “personality,” the same in each manifested being. The exact relationship of Atman to Brahman is debated within the various schools of Vedanta, although both are often referred to as “the Self” in Vedantin texts. Atman and Brahman are seen as fundamentally identical in the most widely disseminated Vedantin school – Advaita (non-dual) Vedanta.

Karma: Karma is the educative force of the universe in which one’s thoughts and actions either lead them closer to, or further away from, Self-Realization.  What we think and do comes back to us, even if we, lacking an omniscient understanding of the web of cause-and-effect, can’t understand how.  The law of karma is seen as “the school of life,” educating a soul over vast periods of time.  Incurring karmic debt continually binds one to the cycle of death and rebirth.  

Samsara: Samsara represents the cycle of death and rebirth and is characterized, in a negative sense, by one’s striving to fulfill their own self-will.  When an aspirant extinguishes their selfish desire, united with Brahman and purely motivated to serve the universal good, they may attain Moksha.  

Moksha: Several different conceptions of Moksha exist, but the term is typically conceived of as one’s final and complete absorption into Being, achieved after an aspirant achieves full Self-Realization.  

Modern teachers of Vedanta freely draw from these concepts and texts (also sometimes drawing from the Yoga tradition as described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and/or a variety of smriti works) in various ways depending on their tradition, lineage, order, and personal inclinations. This creates a wide variety of teachings and interpretations, all of which can be considered “Vedanta,” and keeps the tradition extremely diverse. Vedanta in the West primarily surrounds the Ramakrishna Order, brought by Swami Vivekananda in the 19th Century, with large communities represented by the Vedanta Society of New York and the Vedanta Society of Southern California.

Mantram remains the most common form of meditation in Vedanta (and Hinduism more widely) today.